• Computed tomography (CT) or computed axial tomography (CAT)
• Diffuse optical imaging (DOI) or Diffuse Optical Tomography (DOT)
• Event-related optical signal (EROS)
• Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI),
• Functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)
• Magnetoencephalography (MEG) which also uses superconducting quantum interference devices (SQUIDs)
• Positron emission tomography (PET)
• Single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT).

The neuroimaging techniques mainly used in dyslexia research have been functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI) and positron emission tomography (PET), which have produced clear evidence of structural differences in the brains of children with reading difficulties. It has been found that people with dyslexia have a deficit in parts of the left hemisphere of the brain involved in reading, which includes the inferior frontal gyrus, inferior parietal lobule, and middle and ventral temporal cortex.^[1][2]

Brain activation studies using PET to study language have produced a breakthrough in our understanding of the neural basis of language over the past decade. A neural basis for the visual lexicon and for auditory verbal short term memory components have been proposed. Wernicke’s and Broca’s areas are being recast in terms of localized components of phonological input and output. Some classical regions, such as the arcuate fasciculus, are having their “classical” roles questioned, while other regions, such as the basal temporal language zone, are growing progressively in terms of their recognized importance.^[3][4] with some implication that the observed neural manifestation of developmental dyslexia is task-specific (i.e., functional rather than structural)^[5]

A University of Hong Kong study argues that dyslexia affects different structural parts of children’s brains depending on the language which the children read.^[6] The study focused on comparing children that were raised reading English and children raised reading Chinese. Using fMRI technology researchers found that the children reading English used a different part of the brain than those reading Chinese. Researchers were surprised by this discovery and hope that the findings will help lead them to any neurobiological cause for dyslexia.^[6][7]

A University of Maastricht (Netherlands) study revealed that adult dyslexic readers underactivate the superior temporal cortex for the integration of letters and speech sounds. This reduced audiovisual integration is directly associated with a more fundamental deficit in auditory processing of speech sounds, which in turn predicts performance on phonological tasks. The data also provides a neurofunctional account of developmental dyslexia, in which phonological processing deficits are linked to reading failure through a deficit in neural integration of letters and speech sounds.^[8]

References

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Neurological_research_into_dyslexia

“Our combined experience of thirty years of teaching is specialist schools for dyslexics has lead us to the conclusion that all our (dyslexic) pupils have difficulty in at least some areas of mathematics” (Chinn and Ashcroft).

“It would be remarkable if many of the children who have difficulty with literacy skills do not also have trouble with mathematics” (Pollock and Waller).

Of course a child with reading below his/her age level will have difficulty with reading mathematics text books.

Mathematics has it’s own language and concepts.  Words or terms that are not in everyday language are used. Words that are used in everyday language are used in a different way.

The same symbol may have different names or terms; = can mean – total, altogether , addition, more than, and plus increase, sum of.

VISUAL PRECEPTION may cause problems:

*   signs confused, especially if written carefully – + x -
*   may reverse or confuse 6/9, 3/5.
*   worksheets may be confusing if contents are written closely.

SEQUENCING DIFFICULTIES are common in dyslexia:

*   counting in sequence – days or months.
*   Writing 12 as 71, 36 as 63.
*   difficulty with one to one correspondence.
*   difficulty with the many sequences in maths like 10, 20,30.…

SPATIRAL  DIFFICULTIES

*   losing place on the page, or board.
*   problems with geometry, place value, algebra.
*   Unable to relate two dimensional figures to the two dimensional object they represent.
*   lining up of one, tens, hundreds, on the page.
*   difficulty in seeing spaces between letters, words.

TIME

Being unable to tell (analogue) time in a classic difficulty.  Digital watches help, but do not develop the concept of time.  Reading a timetable, working out journey times required understanding of the 24 hour clock.  Some writers say that most with dyslexia are 9 years or older before they start to understand analogue time.  Some never do.

CALCULATORS

Calculators can be very useful, but does not solve all difficulties.  To be useful the use of a calculator needs to be taught very carefully, with a great deal of supervision practice.  A child with sequencing difficulties may press the buttons in the wrong order.  Ideally the child should be taught to be able to estimate the answer as a check on the answer that the calculator gives.

DYSLEXIA

*   Is an inherited condition, with a physiological basis.
*   About ten percent of children have dyslexia – 2-4% severely.

There is no cure for dyslexia, but much can be done to minimise the difficulties and to develop strengths:

*   early intervention with one to one teaching, a phonics programme.
*   modifications and adjustments to curriculum delivery.
*   building up strengths.
*   a positive and accepting approach to the child.
*   developing strategies to minimise areas of difficulty.
*   teaching a assessment that is flexible enough to adjust to providing for a child with low     literacy skills, but knowledge above literacy skills.
*   Schools with a systematic provision of resources, personnel and teachers who give positive     support.
*   parents who accept that the child has dyslexia and understands what it means.
*   parents who are assertive and informed advocates for the child.
*   parents who build up areas of (relative) strength, and accept areas of difficulty, with on     blame.
*   communities who are informed about dyslexia and provide for those with it.

He/she will be below their age level, in reading in almost every case.  Reading material will need to be 2-5years below their age in difficulty.

It is essential that they have reading tasks that are easy for them.

Reading that is too hard will be unpleasant and aversive, they will ‘fail’ and will become turned off from reading.

One of the most common features of reading in dyslexia is slow decoding of words.  This is reading that is slow often word by word.  The child has to concentrate upon each word to slowly decode it and decide which word it is.  Reading like this makes it hard to concentrate upon the meaning of what is read.

In the book “Reading the Writing on the Wall (200) Tom Nicholson discusses what he calls a ‘Simple View’ of reading:   “Reading = Decoding Print + Language Comprehension.”

Talking about Dyslexia, he says that:  “In the case of dyslexia, we have a poor reader who has good language comprehension. Hence the problem is located in poor decoding.” (p263)

In an article called “The Flashcard Strikes Back”  (‘The Reading Teacher” October 1998) Tom Nicholson asserts that flashcards can be used to teach about 10% of the important words in a piece of reading, before the child reads it.

Teaching these words increases word knowledge, and speed of reading.  This improves reading comprehension because decoding is faster.  Repeated reading is another simple procedure to help improve reading.  A short passage of reading (3-4 minutes for the child, but not too difficult) is selected.  The child reads this passage with an adult, every day for one week.  When the child comes to a word he/she does not know, the adult says what it is.  At the end of the passage a record – say a graph – is kept to record the time taken to read the passage, and the number of words not known.

The time and number of words is recorded each day.  Over the week the reading should be done more quickly, and more words known.

Most children with dyslexia have difficulty with hearing the sounds in words – phonological processing.  They need to be helped to improve this ability to hear the sounds.

Difficulty in relating the sounds in words and letters to the way that letters and sounds are written (phoneme to grapheme correspondence) is another common difficulty.  Phonics activities to improve this are needed.

Learning to break words into syllables is an important skill that helps both reading and spelling.

Most programmes to help a child with dyslexia to read and spell emphasizes the need for a systematic and cumulative, step by step structured programme of learning basic sounds, and basic vowel sounds, leading on through other sounds and letter combinations.  This is usually referred to as phonics.

While most children without dyslexia will pick up the alphabetic code naturally, the child with dyslexia will not.  A structured and careful programme is needed.

In her book “How to Detect and Manage Dyslexia”  Philomena Ott defines multi- sensory learning as;
“The simultaneous use of the eyes, ears, hands and lips to utilize all the pathways to the brain when learning.”

The teacher can help by;
1    Understanding that the child has individual needs because of dyslexia.
2    having knowledge and understanding of dyslexia and the features that cause difficulty for the     child.
3    Being positive and warm towards the child, showing that his/her difficulties are understood     and accepted.
4    marking/assessing work in a positive and constructive way.
5    Setting homework that is suitable for the child in level of difficulty and amount.
6    Providing ways for the child to learn and to show learning and knowledge, in ways that do not     require reading and writing.
7    Understanding that he/she has much better knowledge ‘in the head’ than can be shown through     formal literacy skills.
8    allowing extra time when there is work to be done within the time limit.
9    Ensure that a reader-writer is arranged for tests, and external examinations.
10    maintain close and regular contact with parents to sort out any problems that occur.
11    help the child develop met cognitive skills, study skills and organization skills.
12    Make sure that the child gets some one to one teaching to develop basic literacy skills.  This     will be required for a long period of time, and should be one of the things provided by the
school system to help children with learning difficulties.

It seems obvious that each school should set up a system, a structure, to identify these children, and to provide materials, personnel and programmes for these children with dyslexia.

It should not be just left to the classroom teacher to provide a suitable programme for the individual child.

Please Read More Here..

Parents often say that when they voice concern to teachers and schools about their son or daughter’s difficulties they are told that there is nothing to worry about. They are told “we have worse at school than him” or “he will come right in a year or two.”  Or even worse they are told that he or she are lazy or naughty or needs to take more responsibility for their own learning!

Parents should trust their own feelings and judgments and pursue their concerns.  In perhaps ninety percent of cases, the parent’s concern is correct.

Research, experience and logic support the notion that early help and recognition that the child needs an individual programme of help is much, much better than waiting until things worsen.  An assessment by an educational psychologist with experience in dyslexia, or some other suitable person, should be obtained by the parent.  There is more likelihood that a teacher or school will accept an approach from parents if they have an objective and professional report to argue for help for the child.  However, because many teachers and schools do not believe in dyslexia, or don’t understand it fully, even this supporting information may not be accepted.

This attitude once was common in England, where the term dyslexia was said to be a middle class excuse for children who were not doing as well as their parents hoped they would.  But now, dyslexia is accepted in England as a totally legitimate learning difficulty.

Parents need to be an informed persistent and assertive (not aggressive) advocate for their child.

This may involve communication with your child’s teacher, school principal, and perhaps Board of Trustees to get the programme that your child requires.

To be an effective advocate for your child you need to do a number of things:

1.
Build up a very good understanding of what dyslexia is, and the range of difficulties that your child may have to cope with.  You need to develop a good appreciation of the kinds of adjustments and alterations to school work that your child requires.  Also the out of school difficulties that he/she may need help with.

Most libraries have books on dyslexia.  If your local library has none, try the internet.

2.
You need to reach a full acceptance of the fact that your child has dyslexia and thus a range of difficulties that most other children do not.

This is not an intellectual thing, but is an emotional thing also.  Finding that your child has dyslexia can be an emotional experience, and an unsettling experience.  Parents often find that it takes some time before they can fully accept this, and become relaxed about.  It may take a year or longer.  Perhaps some parents never fully accept or fully relax about it.

To be able to help an advocate on behalf of your child you need to accept him or her as her/she is – not as you want them to be.

Positive acceptance will be communicated to him/her.  It will be emotionally positive for him or her.  Good for his/her ability to learn and develop literacy skills to whatever level is possible for him/her.

3.
Parents can do many things to help the child to develop whatever sills they are able to. And at whatever speed they may be capable of.  Getting literacy skills to their age level (or beyond) may be possible, but it may not be possible, but it may mot be possible.  Some degree of difficulty with spelling, reading, writing, doing math, being organized, doing things or understanding things at speed, and other problems, may continue through life to some degree.  This needs to be accepted.  But accepting this does not mean doing nothing.

Help with literacy skill development:  help to develop strategies; using technology; having a reader-writer for examinations; having  private tutoring (advise the Dank Davis method) and other things to give the child the chance to develop what skills they are able to.

4.
Building up areas of strength is as important as remedial help.

Children should not spend all of their time and energy working on things that they are having difficulty with.  Help them to develop areas of interest and strength.

5.
Parents should help develop skills, knowledge, and understanding, but not literacy skills, directly.

Reading, spelling and writing are important skills, But just as important, or perhaps more important are actual knowledge, vocabulary, concepts and oral comprehension.

What is ‘in your head’ show learning and education – whether the person can express these in reading and writing or not.

Parents can provide many of these things;
1    Reading to your child – this will expand his/her vocabulary, knowledge, and concepts.  A child is never too old to be read to.  Encourage him/her to talk with you about what you read.      Listen, do not make reading to them teaching or grilling or pressure.
2    Discuss all sorts of things with him/her.  Do not talk at or down him/her.  Have a genuine two     way conversation.  Ask open ended questions that encourage him/her to say more and to think     more.
3    Do not make talking with him/her or reading a lesson where you are a teacher.
Discussion and reading should be enjoyable and relaxing for both him and you.
4    Read and discuss things with spouse, partner, friends and relations.  If you are interested in reading, language and knowledge your child will imitate you.
5    Encourage your child to talk with you, to tell you what is interesting, and important to him/her.      Do not criticize their language, speech, pronunciation or what they say, Criticism will turn them off talking with you.
6    When you do ask questions, ask your child questions that require more than one or two word
questions, ask questions that will elicit opinions and comments.
7    Take your child shopping, to the beach, the zoo, markets, to all sorts of places,  Outings to     these places are rich in language, vocabulary concepts and knowledge. They provide chances     to feel, touch, smell, hear and to learn.
8    Hearing and saving rhyme, jingles, songs, poems, playing ‘I spy’ will help your child to hear     the sounds of words,  Hearing these sounds is critical in learning to read and spell.
9    Tapes that can be listened to while reading a book can help reading and language     development.  These often can be found at library
10    Encourage your child to read as often as possible. He/she needs to read material that is easy.     There needs to be no more than one word every 25 words that he/she does not know.  There is     no such thing as reading that is too easy.  (but there certainly is reading that is to difficult).
11    Maintain a positive emphasis and focus on what your child CAN do.  Give him/her plenty of     positive feedback for positive behavior, effort, personal qualities and improvements.  Self     esteem is very important.
12    Provide a consistent, structured predicable routine to help him/her  with organization.  Have     lists, visual reminders of what to do, like pictures to give a step by step plan of what to do in     the morning to get ready for school.
13    Give short, clear, simple instructions and explanations.  Only one or two at once.  Check that     he/she has understood.  Put instructions in a positive way that tells the child what to do.  Say     ‘hang the towel on the rail’, ‘put your bike in the shed’.   Avoid negatives like: ‘do not leave     the towel on the floor’.
14    Have clear and positive rules.  Review these often with your child.
15    Have as few rules as possible.
16    Give positive feedback when rules are followed.
17    Think carefully about rules to make sure they are reasonable and really necessary.  Be     prepared to change rules that don not work.
18    Revise and alter rules as the child grows older.
19    Communicate with him/her in a calm, positive, and supportive manner.  Be friendly and calm,     even when insisting that rules have to be followed.  Be prepared to negotiate for exceptions.

20    Get into the habit of saying yes to your child when they want to do something.  Children     develop skills and knowledge, get pleasure and satisfaction from doing things,  Say yeas as     much as is possible and reasonable, with due regard to shat is safe and possible.  If he/she     cannot do something right now, explain why, and give some hope by describing when they     should be able to.  For example when they are older, when you have the money.  Give a logical     and reasonable answer. Not just no.

This is a problem or perception on how the brain interprets or stores input.  It does not mean that the person has defective hearing or vision.

A weak short term auditory memory means that a child will not be able to recall instructions or explanations that are long, and certain a number of parts.

Parents and teachers need to give instructions and explanations short, clear and only one or two at a time.

There is also likely to be difficulty with working memory in relation to tasks like mental arithmetic or other calculations needing information to be held in memory.  Many with dyslexia, including intelligent adults, continue to need to count on their fingers to compute basic number facts. They have great difficulty in computing even simple computations in their head.

Help is needed in the form of strategies to help the child remember.  Lists, reminders, pictorial guides, systems like sibling picking up homework.

Slow processing of some information is one of the common features of dyslexia.

This may show in:

*   slow copying from the board,
*   Slow in working out oral responses to questions.
*   slow in computing basic number facts.
*  slow in understanding what other people say.
*   slow in writing assignments.
*   slow in doing homework.

The slowness is caused by the speed of ‘internal’ processing of information, nothing to do with intelligence or ability.

Because they often work slowly, a more than usual amount of effort may be required by them to do the same works others.  So what they do can be tiring.

Teachers need to understand that slow processing, and thus slowness in producing work ,  caused by dyslexia.  The child is not deliberately being slow, or being slow through lack of effort or attention.

Slow processing can be accommodated by :

*   More time for task completion.
*   Chunking – breaking large tasks into smaller segments.
*   Instructions or explanations given slowly in short, clear statements, a few at a time.
*   Photocopies of notes and course information rather than copied from a board.
*   Leave work to be copied on the board for as long as possible.
*   Reduce amount of homework – 5 spelling words not 10.  Get parent to sign that he/she worked for a                                                         reasonable time, even though not all work is completed.
*   Allow time for processing answers.
*   Understanding that some tasks – like mental arithmetic may be especially difficult.
*   Extra time to complete work.
*   Use of reader – writer for tests and examinations.

It is important for him/her to get help to build up for one or more areas of (relative) competence.

This includes both academic areas, and non-academic areas.

A strength does not necessarily mean being best or outstanding, but something that can be done at a reasonable level of competence.  Good enough to be in the team, but not necessarily the star.

So, as well as providing help to improve areas of difficulty, time and energy must also go into improving any areas that is a relative strength.

To be realistic, a child of twelve years or over, who still has low literacy skills, is less likely to follow an academic path and career.  It is certainly not impossible if he/she is highly motivated, but will be challenging.

Therefore, in addition to continued help with literacy skills, it is important to put time and energy into helping him/her to develop their interests and strengths.

Music, arts, mechanical skills, building skills, physical skills and any others that interest him/her need development, as possible career skills, are areas of competence, self esteem and person growth.